Learning Objectives
Be ready to...
- List the different ways in which percussion instruments of the orchestra make sound, including: rubbing, shaking, or striking the instrument with an implement.
- Distinguish between idiophones and membranophones.
- Define the following musical terms: chimes, cymbals, drums, drumstick, kettledrum, mallet, shaking, striking, tambourine, timpani, triangle, vibraphone, xylophone, marimba, and resonator.
Percussion
Introduction
Making sounds by hitting objects against one another must be one of the oldest activities known to man. The history of percussion instruments is therefore extremely rich. Every culture on the planet uses one kind of percussion instrument or another. Drums are perhaps the most universally used. They may be found in African and South American tribal cultures as well as Eastern and Middle Eastern countries such as China, Korea, India, Egypt, and Iran. Aside from fulfilling a purely musical function, drums have played an important role in communication, rituals, and ceremonies in all these cultures.
Before looking at the orchestral percussion instruments, let's briefly consider African drumming, as Africa is renowned for the pulsating rhythms of its drums. The membrane drum most significantly illustrates this power. Although membrane drums come in different sizes and shapes, they all have one thing in common: they talk. The concept of a talking drum is widely embraced in African communities and provides perhaps the most important illustration of the way in which musical communication takes place in Africa. But how does an African drum talk? This is a question that many Westerners often ask. Simply put, African drums talk by imitating speech patterns. Most African languages are tonal languages, in the sense that the meaning of a word often depends on how the word is said. For example, the Yoruba word "e-wa" could mean "beauty," "beans," or "please come," depending on how the word is intoned.
African drummers talk through their drums when they make their drum patterns imitate the speech contours of words. A musical performance on a drum is therefore significant not only for its musical features but also for what the drum is "saying." The Yoruba people, whose population is about 30 million, live in South Western Nigeria and parts of Benin Republic. Yoruba populations are also found in Brazil, Cuba, The Caribbean, and the United States. Yoruba music is noted for its varieties of drums, many of which are regarded as “talking” instruments. The dundun drum ensemble epitomizes Yoruba drum music.
Do you know of any other cultures whose percussion music features "talking" drums?
How To Make A Yoruba Talking Drum
Composer: Anonymous
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"Dundun Ensemble"
Orchestral Percussion Instruments
Idiophones
Idiophones are instruments that produce sounds from the vibration of their own bodies—idio comes from the Latin idem meaning "the thing itself."
Castanets are idiophones that may be further classified under the concussion group, meaning instruments in which two similar objects are clapped together to make a sound. Castanets are widely used in Spanish folk music, especially to provide a rhythmic accompaniment to dancing. The dancers loop the castanet string around the thumb, leaving the rest of the fingers free to strike them against the palm of the hand.
Orchestral castanets are usually mounted on a stick, in which case they are called handle castanets, or mounted on a base to form a pair of machine castanets. This makes them easier to play, but also alters the sound, particularly for the machine castanets. Handle castanets were developed specifically for use in orchestral music. They are useful for producing a sustained roll, especially loud rolls, on the instrument.
It is possible to produce a roll on a pair of castanets in any of the three ways in which they are held. When held in the hand, they are bounced against the fingers and palm of the hand; on sticks, bouncing between fingers and the player's thigh is one accepted method. For a machine castanet, a less satisfactory roll is obtained by the rapid alternation of the two castanets with the fingers.
Composer: Benjamin Britten
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"The Young Person s Guide To The Orchestra, Op. 34" [ 13:27-13:31 ]00:04
Membranophones
Membranophones are instruments that produce sounds by vibrating a membrane or skin that is stretched over a wood or metal frame. Most of these instruments are drums of some kind or another that may be played directly with the hands or with a beater.
The bass drum is a large instrument, approximately 36 inches (90 cm) in diameter and 16 inches (40 cm) deep. The one pictured at left is suspended from a swivel frame, which is how it is normally used in the symphony orchestra. It is believed that the bass drum originated in Turkey as a member of military bands, later becoming popular in 18th-century Europe when Turkish music came into vogue. The bass drum, which can be further classified as an untuned percussion instrument, is also an integral part of marching bands, in which players hold the instrument by using a harness with wide leather straps.
The snare drum, also part of the untuned percussion group, was incorporated into the orchestra in the 1700s. Up until then, it had traditionally been used exclusively in army bands, attached by a sling to the player's side. The one used in the orchestra is about 14 inches (35 cm) in diameter and about 5 inches (13 cm) deep, and it is placed on a stand. The one used in marching bands is slightly smaller in diameter (12 inches/30cm) but about 10 inches deeper.
Composer: Johann Strauss I
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"Radetzky March, Op. 228"
Composer: Aaron Copland
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"Fanfare for the Common Man"
Pitched Percussion
Pitch in percussion instruments is an interesting subject. Some percussion instruments are capable of producing definite pitches. These include the timpani (also known as kettledrums), the chimes, and the beautifully sounding—and closely related—xylophone, vibraphone, and marimba. Other percussion instruments, such as the tambourine, triangle, cymbals, and castanets produce sounds of indefinite pitch. Such instruments may also be described as unpitched or non-pitched. Sounds produced by non-pitched instruments are made up of such complex frequencies that it is impossible, or at the very least, relatively difficult to discern distinct pitches when they are played.
Percussion instruments can be classified under more than one category. A case in point is the castanets, which aside from being idiophones, as we already know, are also unpitched instruments and can, therefore, be classified as unpitched idiophones. The snare drum can be classified as an unpitched membranophone, and so on.
Let's look at examples of pitched (definite pitch) and non-pitched (indefinite pitch) percussion instruments:
The Timpani
The timpani, or kettledrum, was invented in the Middle East around the 10th century. Today, it is the most important percussion instrument of the symphony orchestra, where it is most often used in pairs. Unlike most drums, they are capable of producing an actual pitch. The vibrating membrane is held in place by a metal ring with screws that the player manipulates to vary the tension of the skin—and therefore the instrument's pitch. Kettledrums vary in size from 20 to 32 inches in diameter (50 to 82 cm). The end (or head) of the mallets traditionally used to play them is covered with felt.
The Timpani
Composer: Carl Orff
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"Carmina Burana: Carmina Burana: O Fortuna"
Untuned Percussion
Untuned percussion is a sub-classification of percussion instruments comprised of instruments that are typically used to perform the rhythmic foundations of a composition. Most of these instruments are untuned, that is, unable to produce a specific pitch. They are notated with normal rhythmic notation, but each instrument is placed on a separate line.
In addition to the bass drum and snare drum above, other untuned percussion instruments include:
Claves
Suspended Cymbal
Tenor Drum
Tom-Toms
Triangle
Wood Block
The Gong
The gong is a circular metal percussion instrument used primarily in Asian countries. There are many different types of gong, but by far the most familiar to most Westerners is the chau gong, also known as bullseye gong because of the concentric rings in its design. A large chau gong is called tam-tam—tam-tam and gong are actually interchangeable terms. Although some gongs may be tuned, orchestral gongs have indefinite pitch, are large and flat, measure 76 cm or more in diameter, and their circumference is turned over to form a lip. Most are cast and hammered from an alloy of copper and tin. Orchestral gongs are suspended from a frame and played with a padded felt or wool mallet.
Even though the gong produces a fundamental pitch, it is typically considered to be untuned percussion or a non-pitched instrument.
The Gong